History of Korea

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Challenges of Modernization - Response to Capitalist Encroachment

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Response to Capitalist Encroachment

During the late 19th century, insistent demands for commercial relations with Joseon were made by the British, the Russians and other Europeans. The Prussian merchant Ernest J. Oppert in 1866 twice knocked on Korea's door and requested trade, but was refused. In the same year the American ship General Sherman made its memorable sortie into Korean waters with the objective of forcing the Korean government to enter into commercial relations. The vessel reached the Daedonggang river with a cargo of European merchandise and proceeded to Pyeongyang, where they used unseemly force in dealing with Korean soldiers and civilians. The infuriated Koreans attacked the ship and set it afire.

The Daewongun's massacre of Catholics was a powerful stimulus for France, which had already established beachheads in Indochina, to move aggressively against Korea. Admiral Pierre G. Roze, commander of France's Indochina fleet, led his squadron to waters off Ganghwado island on October 13, 1866 and landed troops on the island. They were repulsed, however, by Korean forces, and the French fleet was forced to withdraw.

From 1868, Japan, as a first step in its aggressive policy toward the peninsula, began pressing Korea to start negotiations aimed at revising traditional relations. From the American standpoint, such a revision also was highly desirable. The General Sherman incident stimulated the United States to intensify its efforts to force Korea to open its ports, and in 1871 Washington directed its Asian fleet to invade Ganghwado island. The American troops were repulsed by the Korean garrison and their fleet retreated from Korean waters.

When Japan indicated its intention to terminate traditional diplomatic relations with Korea, the Daewongun expressed a different view. He favored the restoration of the time-honored diplomacy in which the ruling clan of Tsushima island served as an intermediary between the two governments.

Because the Daewongun was adamant on the matter, Japanese leaders seized upon the "Korea problem" as an outlet to relieve domestic discontent, and made plans for an aggressive war. Japanese officials stationed in the area were instructed to spy on Korea's domestic situation. Japanese leaders proposed that 30 regiments should be sent to occupy the whole of the peninsula. Korea's natural resources and abundant rice production were important factors in Japan's aggressive designs. In pursuit of their objective, the Japanese fabricated a number of incidents. They sent their warships to raid points on Korea's coast, Busan and Ganghwado island, creating an atmosphere just short of actual war. The Japanese delegation which landed at Gapgot, Ganghwado island on January 16, 1876, was fully equipped for combat, being escorted by 400 troops.

Such was the atmosphere in which a 12-article treaty was concluded. Presented unilaterally by the Japanese, this pact provided for a revision of diplomatic relations. An addendum to the treaty, consisting of a trade accord and a customs agreement, all drafted by Japan, was signed in July. These instruments provided a legal basis for Japanese aggression by granting to the Japanese such privileges as extraterritoriality, exemption from customs duties, and legal recognition of Japanese currency in the ports to be opened to foreign trade. Creating a legal basis for Japanese aggression in Korea, these were unequal treaties, forced upon Korea just as Japan had been coerced years before by European powers and America.

In 1881, the scope of Japanese encroachment was broadened by the opening of Wonsan and Incheon ports. Another demand was that a Japanese consul be stationed in the capital. In the course of these events, there emerged among Koreans two strongly held opinions - one advocating the repulsion of "crooked" foreign powers, and the other calling for domestic reform.

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Late Joseon Period - Welfare Programs Welfare Programs The ideal of a Confucian welfare state during the Joseon Dynasty was conceived and implemented by King Sejong in the 15th century, but it was Yi Sugwang who elaborated on the philosophy of welfare in the period following the Hideyoshi invasions. He expounded the idea that the Way of Heaven was to be found among the people, and its noblest realization was to feed and clothe the people ... Views 30319
Late Joseon Period - Reform Attempts Reform Attempts In the early 19th century, the Korean economy and social conditions improved. The people in general thought that foreign ideas and European commercial enterprise in particular should be taken seriously. Some officials advocated a thorough reform of national finance. The central government examined the proposal, but its implementation was thwarted by a struggle for power. There were numerous agrarian ... Views 31117
Late Joseon Period - Peasant Wars of 1812 and 1862 Peasant Wars of 1812 and 1862 During this period, drought and flood alternately struck the country, causing a succession of bad harvests, which in turn generated a grim cycle of famine. Excessive tax collection and forced labor ensued. These adverse natural and social conditions ignited a series of agrarian revolts. In 1812, Hong Gyeongrae rose up in revolt with the peasants at Gasan, in the northern part of ... Views 31376
Challenges of Modernization - Response to Capitalist Encroachment Response to Capitalist Encroachment During the late 19th century, insistent demands for commercial relations with Joseon were made by the British, the Russians and other Europeans. The Prussian merchant Ernest J. Oppert in 1866 twice knocked on Korea's door and requested trade, but was refused. In the same year the American ship General Sherman made its memorable sortie into Korean waters with the objective of ... Views 31677
Challenges of Modernization - Arguments for Repulsion / Reformists Arguments for Repulsion Korea's learned Confucianists, on the basis of information obtained through Qing China, regarded the infiltration of European capitalist power as a potentially disruptive intrusion. They wanted to strengthen their alignment with Neo-Confucian ethics, and grew intolerant of new creeds. The closing of many local schools by the Daewongun in 1864 increased apathy. Deprived of their spiritua... Views 30773
Challenges of Modernization - Opposition to Japan Opposition to Japan The Japanese minister to Korea, Hanabusa Yoshimoto, forced the Korean government to introduce the Japanese army training system, and a separate training command was established for this purpose. Implementation of army reorganization and training was of itself an effective springboard for aggression. Japan monopolized the Korean market in 1876. Two years later, Japan's Daiichi Bank established a branch ... Views 30840
Challenges of Modernization - Political Upheaval of 1884 Political Upheaval of 1884 The conclusion of a series of commercial treaties between Joseon and foreign countries intensified the encroachment of capitalist powers. A group of reformists denounced the leading politicians for their reliance on foreign influence and tried to introduce reforms that would improve social conditions, enrich the people and strengthen national power. The main concern of Kim Okgyun... Views 30716
Challenges of Modernization - Donghak Struggle of 1894 Donghak Struggle of 1894 Donghak, or Eastern Learning, was based on the doctrine of the salvation of farmers from their destitute lives. Although its preaching had a religious aspect, the main concern was to realize national stability and security. Seeing that his teaching was gaining in popularity, the government executed Choe Je-u in 1864 on charges of treason. His movement lived on, however, and poverty-stricken... Views 30893
Challenges of Modernization - Reform Attempts Reform Attempts The unsuccessful 1884 coup d'etat brought frustration to the reform efforts, but the need for reform still was keenly felt by the populace and some leaders of the government as well. The disintegration of the traditional social order was accelerated by the peasant struggle. Such developments led Korea to implement institutional reform. The conservative government had been compelled to accept the ad... Views 31092
Challenges of Modernization - Intensified Japanese Aggression Intensified Japanese Aggression Japanese aggression in Korea was "a matter of life or death," as was earlier expressed by Hayashi Tadashi, an one-time Japanese minister to London. As Japanese aggression intensified, the Min clique collaborated with Russian Minister Karl Waeber to force Kim Hongjip to reorganize his cabinet, and pro-Russian figures such as Yi Beomjin were given cabinet posts. The government, reorganizing ... Views 30828

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